Jain Nyaya (Doctrine of Right Judgment): Brief Outline Discussion
-Dr. Veer Sagar Jain
0.0 Preamble There are infinite objects in this universe and each object has infinite states/modes. What to talk of knowing the complete truth about all the objects and their infinite states for a person like us, we cannot even know the entire truth even about one object. Only an omniscient can know the truth in its entirely. However Jains say that even we can know the whole truth about one or more states of an object provided we become free knowledge obscuring flaws like attachment, aversion and delusion. Jains say so as these flaws cause insistence on one’s practical knowledge as complete and negation of other’s true knowledge as false. Nyaya doctrine of Jains enable one to arise above these flaws (i.e. attachment, aversion and delusion) and start the enquiry for true knowledge of an object. This fact can be clarified by the following example: A child is suffering from tooth decay problems. His mother forbids him from eating sweets as these aggravate tooth decay. However when a guest comes to his home, he brings chocolates to the child and asks him to eat and enjoy. The mother again stops the child from eating the chocolate. The child starts considering his mother as his enemy and the guest as his well wisher even though the child back in his heart knows eating chocolate are harmful to him. Later on the doctor explains the whole process of tooth decay and how sweets aggravate this decay. Knowing this, the child starts respecting his mother as his true well wisher. So Nyaya doctrine enable the inquirer of truth to rise above the flaws of attachment, aversion and delusion and see the object in its true perspective. 1.0 Nyaya, it’s meaning, synonyms and definition Basically Nyaya is a word derived from Sanskrit Language. Nyaya in Sanskrit means, “A system by which we can know properly & thoroughly the exact nature of a substance”. Synonyms of Nyaya in Sanskrit are : Anviksa Observation Yukti Logic Pariksa Examination Samiksa Constructive criticism And many more similar words are used to represent Nyaya. Thus Nyaya is metaphysics of reality (Tattvasastra), as well as a theory of knowledge. It is not merely formal logic but a full epistemology, combining discussion of psychology & logic, metaphysics & theology.
1.1 Significance of Nyaya We cannot know thoroughly (& properly) the nature of an object (substance) just by blind faith or faith only. But we can do so by Nyaya, logic and examination. In this manner, Nyaya is not only a science but a scientific method of enquiring the true nature of an object which avoids insistence/dominance of one’s view point & provides the true nature of the object. 2.0 Nyaya in Jain Philosophy “ Pramananayatmako Nyayah”
Nyayadipika
As per Jain Philosophy, Nyaya is a combination of pramana & naya because both these (i.e. pramana & naya) are the only two organs by which truth about an object can be examined and known. There is no other way of doing so except these. That is why the entire literature of Jain philosophy deals with pramana & naya in dept & with clear perspective. A person who becomes an expert examiner/Judge (Naiyayika) of true knowledge. This way it is clear that there are just two organs/limbs of Jain Nyaya namely Pramana & Naya. 2.1 Primary texts (granthas) of Jain Nyaya There are over 100 Jain texts dealing with the subject of Nyaya However the following four texts are very significant for their primary contribution to Jain Nyaya. (1) Pariksa Mukhasutram (2) Nyayadipika (3) Pramana Mimansa (4) Nayacakra
Acarya Manikyanandi Abhinava Dharma Bhusana Yati Acarya Hemacandra Suri Maillladhavala
3.0 Characteristics of Pramana (Valid knowledge or organ of knowledge) As per Jain philosophy, right knowledge (or true knowledge i.e. samyak-jnana) is pramana. It is so as only with this can we know or decide the truth about an object. In spiritual discussions, this can be said that only with right knowledge we can know about ‘what is to be acquired and hence is worth doing (upadeya)’ and what is to be discarded and avoided (heya)’, god (Maheswara), Vedas, sensual perception or contact (sannikar sa) alone are not considered as valid knowledge in Jain philosophy. 3.1 Types of organ of knowledge There are many types and sub types of valid knowledge as depicted in the chart below :
Pramana (Valid knowledge) Direct (Pratyaksa) Empirical intuition (Samvyavharika)
Indirect (Paroksha)
Transcendental (Parmarthika)
Memory (smrti) Recognition (pratyabhijnana) Logic (Tarka) Inference (Anumana) Scriptures (agama)
Mind based knowledge (Matijnana)
Incomplete (Vikala)
Complete (sakala)
Outliner grasp (Avagraha) Discrimination (iha) Judgment (avaya) Retention (dharna)
Clairvoyance (Avadhi)
Telepathy Omniscience (Manahparyaya) (kevala)
3.2 Direct organ of knowledge and its sub types Lucid (crisp and clear/visada) knowledge is defined as pratyaksa pramana. In other words, pratyaksa pramana does not need the help of other types of knowledge and by itself knows the object of knowledge in a lucid manner. Empirical intuition (Samvyavharika pratyasksa pramana) occurs through the medium of sense organs and hence is not lucid and should be classified as indirect organ of knowledge. Yet due to tradition and common practice, it is also termed as direct by tradition or empirical intuition. Transcendental direct (parmarthika pratyaksa pramana) is independent of sense organs or any other medium and is by the soul directly. It is of two types namely: a. one which knows limited types of objcts (termed as vikala or incomplete) and b. which knows all types of objects (sakala). Vikala pratyaksa pramana. It is of two types namely clairvoyance (Avadhi) and telepathy (Manahparyaya). Knowledge, of the material objects (i.e. concrete) with the limitations of space, time, substance and modes is called clairvoyance. Knowledge of the objects of thoughts of other person’s within the limitations of space, time, substance and modes is called telepathy. Kevala jnana or omniscience is called sakala pratyaksa. It knows all substance and their modes of all times. Jain Nyaya texts talk in depth and details of this omniscience only while others talk at different levels of details. Briefly it can be said that only an Arhanta is an omniscient an no one else due to his following characteristics:
i. ii. iii.
He is free of any fault/flaw like attachment, aversion etc. His sermons cannot be refuted by any logic or other means. His sermons are only for the beneficence of all and sundry.
3.3 Paroksa pramana i.e. indirect organ of knowledge and its sub types Knowledge which is not lucid and is based o the help of other knowledge is called Paroksa pramana. It is of five types namely Memory, Recognition, Logic, Inference and Scriptures in that order as each succeeding type of these organs need the assistance of all the preceding organs of knowledge; e.g. Memory utilizes empirical intuition, memory and recognition and so on. Scriptures utilize words, signs etc. Memory-Smrti : Cognition or Knowledge which generates the feeling, ‘It is like that or he is a man’, based on the earlier direct experience i.e. Smrti or memory. Jains consider it pramāņa due to its impact on a. behavioral changes and b. extensive use in inference based on earlier experience and its object. Recognition or Pratyābhijñāna : Cognition due to the combined result of direct intuition and memory is called recognition, it is a means by which we gain knowledge of an object from its similarity or dissimilarity to another object previously well known i.e. cognition by comparison. Two factors are involved in an argument in comparison namely a. the knowledge of an object to be cognized and b. perception of similarity to other previously known object. Memory cognition is ‘He is a man’ and Recognition is ‘He is that man or He is like Dev Datt’. It is of many types, namely, Ekatva (unique), Sādraśya (Equality or similarity) and Prātiyogika (competitive). Logic or inductive reasoning or Tarka: Logic implies establishing the universal relationship (vyäpti) between the object of cognition (sādhya/major term or the hypothesis to be proven) and the object known already (sādhana or middle term) by observation or non-observation; e.g. smoke has a universal relationship with fire as smoke exists only with fire and it does not exist without fire. Vyapti is also known as avinābhāva or concomitance. There are two types of universal relationship namely co-existent (sahabhāvi) and serial (kramabhāvi). Co-existent Universal relationship is the existence of middle term (vyāpya) with the major term (vyāpaka) e.g. smoke and fire and not vice versa or neem and tree. Serial universal relationship is time based or relation of the form pre-post existence of major term and middle term e.g. Monday comes after Sunday. Inference or Anumāna: Cognition of the sadhya/major term due to the knowledge of the middle term /sādhana/Hetu/linga). It can be either affirmation or negation. The word Anu (meaning after) and Mana (knowledge) literally means cognition after some prior knowledge. Thus the middle term(Hetu) assumes significance in inference. Characteristics hetu had been a hotly debated subject in different Indian philosophies which talk of 2,34.5 and more charactristics
for a middle term to be a hetu. Jains talk of only one characteristic namely avinabhäva (concomitance) or vyapti (universal relationship.) Inference is of two main types as shown below: Inference / Anumana Sädhana / Hetu Middle term
Sadhya Vyäpti Universal relation
Self (Svärtha)
Major term
Syllogistic (Parartha)
Jains consider only proposition (Pratijna) and Reason (Hetu) as the two essential limbs of inference. The other three, viz, Example or illustrations (Udäharana), Application (Upnaya), and Statement of conclusion (Nigamana) are used by a teacher for the specific needs of his pupils. Scriptural knowledge or Agama : Cognition of an object based on the sermons of omniscient (Apta) is called Agama, Jain Naiyäyikas have given extensive details on Apta which can be summarized as follows: Moksamārgasya netärām bhettäram karmabhübhratām, Jñatāram višvatattvänām vande tadgunalabdhaye, i.e. Åpta is one who is omniscient, has no flaws/faults and no attachments any thing and is the preacher of sermons of supreme beneficence to all. In simple and practical terms we can say that a person whose knowledge on specific subject cannot be questioned or contradicted by anyone and preaching his knowledge to all for their benefit is Apta of that subject. However, a person who is sleeping or is intoxicated cannot be called an Apta and his sermons are not classified as Agama. In fact sermons of Apta are Agama pramāņa Even though it is like knowledge, however due to its cause and effect relationship with Apta, we can normally say that Agama is written document and Apta is an essential characteristic of Agama. Jain Naiyäyikas have also dealt in depth the object of pramāna and the result/ benefits of pramāņa. The same is briefly discussed here. 3.4 Object of pramäņa or knowledge (prameya) or just object The object of pramāna is an entity which has both generic and specific characteristics and the same is capable of going through transformation continuously. Existence of either the generic or just the specific characteristics of the entity are not possible. Every object has the nature being generic cum specific which the Jain acăryas have explained by describing the origination-
destruction-permanence as the charactertics of the substance. Acărya uma Swami in Tattvärathasutra has given two important sutras as föllows to describe this: 1. Sat dravyalakşa nam 2. Ulpādavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat. Thus every substance in this universe is permanent and yet going through transformation continuously. Every moment a new mode originates and the old mode gets destroyed simultaneously and yet the substance continues to exist forever. This principle has been explained through the examples of gold necklace, soul, pitcher etc. For example, when a golden ring is melted to make a necklace then the ring (mode) gets destroyed, the necklace (mode) gets destroyed and the gold continues to exist. 3.5 Result/benefits of prarāņa We should look at the benefits of pramāna from two perspective namely immediate and inheritance (paramparā). Elimination of lack of knowledge is the immediate benefit of pramāņa and giving up the wrong acts/thoughts and accepting the right acts/thoughts or their appreciation is the inheritance benefit of pramāņa. Besides these, there is no other benefit of pramâna in Jain Nyaya. The following two statements in Jain texts are worth mentioning: 1. Ajñānanivrtlihanopādānopekşaśca falam. 2. Jñänameva falam jñāne nanu ślläghyamanasvaram aho mohasya mähätmyari yadanyadapi mrgyate
(Parīksāmukha 5/1) (Atmänusāsana 175)
3.6 Pseudo organ of knowledge or pramāņābhāsa Jain Naiyāyikas say that knowing pramāņa is not enough; we should also know about pseudo organ of knowledge. This is so as pramaņa enables us to know an object truly while pseudo organ of knowledge enables us to know the opposite or the wrong nature of the object. Accordingly Acārya Manikya Nandi in Parikşāmukha says in the beginning itself as follows: Pramāņādarthasańasiddhistadabhasādviparyayah. Eli vaksye tayorlak sma siddhamalpani laghiyasah. i.e. an entity vhich is not pramāna but looks like pramāna or considered so is called pseudo organ of knowledge. Sensual contact, sense organs, tendencies of the senses, kāraksākalya etc are all pseudo organs of knowledge.
Like pramäņa pramānābhāsa is also of two types namely direct and indirect and their subdivisions also and their characterstics can also be understood on the same lines. Similarly we know pramāņa are of two types and considering more than these or less than two is pramānasankyābhāsa or considering the object of knowledge as just with generic or just with specific characteristics is pramānavi sayabhāsa. Similarly the immediate benefit of pramaya is elimination of ignorance or lack of knowledge and traditionally it is the knowledge of what is to be accepted or rejected or opposed. But not accepting So and thinking of some other benefits of pramāna is called pramănafatabhasa. 4.0 Standpoint or naya discussions Study of Nayacakra by Mäilladhavala (published by Bhärtiya Jnanapcetha New Delhi) is strongly recommended for those readers who are interested in in-depth study on this important aspect of knowledge. To know or describe an object of knowledge in part (be it a part or an attribute or a characteristic or a mode) is called Naya. In reality naya is only type of cognition yet in practical purposes and due to the cause and effect relationship, it is also said as spoken or described knowledge. It is important note here that while Naya cognizes only a part of the object, yet it never ignores or discards the existence of other parts of the object; it keeps them in the background. This is the primary difference between naya and nayabhasa (pseudo naya). Naya merely keeps the other parts in the background while describing the part under cognition while nayabhāsa completely ignores other parts of the object while cognizing or describing the part under cognition. Thus naya is the right uni-polar view while nayābhāsa is the wrong uni-polar view of the object. Which of the infinite attributes of an object are to be kept in the background while describing one attribute, depends on the intention of either the speaker or the knower. jñāturabhiprāyo nayah or vakturabhipräyo nayah indicates the above statemen’s. 4.1 Types of naya An entity has infinite attributes. Similarly an intelligent person can describe the same thing in infinite manners. Hence nayas can also be infinite in number. However to simplify matters, texts have indicated one, two, three, four, seven, forty seven types. Here we shall discuss only two types of naya as all other nayas can be grouped into them only. 4.1.1 Niścayanaya (transcendental standpoint) and vyavahārnaya (practical standpoint) Transcendental standpoint views an object keeping the identically (commonality) and not the tradition. Practical standpoint tries to look at differences and practicality/ tradition. For example Jiva is eternal, non concrete and not going through many life cycles is transcendental standpoint while discriminating its attributes of knowledge, intuition etc or
looking at calling it concrete is practical standpoint. Similarly many other simple examples can be cited to explain these two nayas. Another example is call a pitcher made of soil as soil is transcendental standpoint while to call it a pitcher of butter (as it is used to store butter) is the practical standpoint. To summarize to call an entity as per its nature is transcendental standpoint and to describe it due to its association etc with others is called as practical standpoint.
Milk
Butter
Water
The picture above shows three pitchers all made of sand/clay. One is having milk; the other is having butter and third is having water. Transcendental standpoint will say that all pitchers are clay pitchers while practical or Modal standpoint will call one as milk pitcher, the second as butter pitcher and thir as water pitcher. 4.1.2 Dravyārthika naya (substance standpoint) and paryāyārthikanaya (Mode standpoint) We have earlier defined a substance as always with both generic and specific characteristics. This generic and specificness of an object is also described as substance and mode characteristics as generic attributes denotes the substance and the specific characteristics correspond to the mode. The standpoint which addresses the generic or the substance part of the object is called Substance standpoint and the one which looks at the specificness or mode of the object is called Mode standpoint. For example to call an entity as eternal and same is substance standpoint while to call an object as non eternal i.e. changing or with different forms etc is called Mode standpoint.
In the picture above we see a man, a woman, a dog and a cat. As per substance standpoint, we shall say all are jivas or sentient while the modal standpoint will say the first one as a man, the second as a woman, the third as ä dog and the fourth one a cat. I hope that we all understand the concepts of pramāna pramānābhāsa, naya, nayabhāsa and become able and expert Naiyayikas to understand the nature of reality and move on the path of spiritual purification.